Nutrition for Maximum Performance

By Eleanor Blazer

Lesson Three

FORAGES

We have learned that the horse is a non-ruminant herbivore. The equine digestive system is designed to extract most of the nutritional requirements from forage.

Forage can be pasture, hay, or forage substitutes. The type, quality, and quantity of each one determines how well the horse utilizes the nutrients and if supplements are needed to meet the nutritional requirements. Grasses and legumes are the types of plants used when establishing pasture or a stand of hay.

GRASSES

Grasses are divided into two categories: warm or cool season varieties. Warm-season grasses (examples: bermudagrass, bahiagrass, and digitgrass) do not survive in areas that have cold winters. Cool-season grasses (timothy, fescue, orchard grass, blue grass) will survive in areas with cold winters.

Bermudagrass is a popular warm-season grass in the south. It prefers sandy soil and does not tolerate wet areas. Bermudagrass can take punishment from hooves and is high yielding when managed properly. It can be used for both hay and pastures in a rotation program.

Bahiagrasses and digitgrasses are warm-season varieties that are very sensitive to frost. They are somewhat tolerant to drought, but not as productive as Bermudagrass. They are difficult to dry, so areas that have high humidity and frequent rain may not be suitable for their use as a hay crop.

Timothy (Catstail) is a cool-season grass and very palatable to horses. It does not do well in high summer temperatures. Timothy does not tolerate close grazing, so a rotational program must be used. It makes an excellent stand of hay.

Fescue varieties are very hardy, tolerant to drought and heat and can be grown in wet soil. However, fescue can be a dangerous pasture grass. Horses do not find it as palatable as other grasses, and it can become infected with an endophyte fungus. (Mares eating fescue infected with fungus during the last 60 days of gestation may not produce colostrum at foaling time, may give birth to stillborn foals, have a tough placenta, or extended gestation length). Fescue varieties have been developed which are endophyte free.

Horses grazing on fescue in the fall after a drought may colic. The grasses, which have been dormant because of lack of moisture, will have stored nutrients. After a frost the fescue plant will have increased starch and carbohydrates available. Horses allowed to graze freely may colic due to overloading the large intestine with the excessive starch and carbohydrates. The problem can be avoided if the horses are limited to short grazing periods as they gradually readapted to the pasture.

Orchardgrass (Cocksfoot) is excellent forage for horses. It tolerates close grazing and horses find it more palatable than fescue. Orchardgrass does not do well in drought conditions and cannot survive much trampling. It matures early and does fairly well in shady areas.

Bluegrass (Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass) is very nutritious, withstands close grazing, and horses like it. It is the most palatable of all the grasses. Bluegrass tolerates cold winters very well, but does not tolerate drought conditions. It does not yield as much forage as the other grasses.

Sweet vernal is a grass variety found in Europe. It has a sweet smell when dried for hay. Sweet vernal was popular until it was discovered the substance that creates the sweet smell, coumarin, has a bitter taste. It can often be found in old pastures.

The examples given are perennials. Perennials will re-grow year after year with proper maintenance. Annuals complete their entire growth cycle in one year and need to be re-planted each year. Examples of warm-season annuals are sorghum, sudangrass, and Johnsongrass. They are not suitable for horse forages, because they can cause cyanide toxicities. Cool-season annuals are cereal grains such as wheat and oats. These are grown for the seed head which is harvested for grain.

Grasses can tolerate poor growing conditions better than legumes.

LEGUMES

Legumes are usually higher in nutrient values than grasses, when managed properly. The structure of the legume plant is unique. It has nodules on the roots, which forms bacteria. This bacterium introduces nitrogen to the soil. When planted with grass the nitrogen from the legume feeds the grass plant, resulting in a healthy stand of forage. Examples of legumes are: alfalfa, clover, and trefoil.

Alfalfa (Lucerne or Luzerne) is a deep-rooted plant. It is excellent for drought areas, but needs well-drained soil. Alfalfa requires a pH (acid level of the soil) to be near 7.0. It is generally used for hay rather than pasture, as crop management needs to be precise. Alfalfa’s recovery from over-grazing is poor. The alfalfa plant can be identified by its serrated leaves and purple blossoms.

Clover is available in many different types. These are red, white, alsike, and sweet clovers.

Red clover requires a high level of fertility and may need to be re-seeded every two years. It is a true clover which has three leaflets attached to the stem at the same point. Red clover’s large red blossom is easy to identify.

White clover is shallow-rooted and a true clover. White clover can tolerate soil with low pH, but will grow better if the pH is 6.0 to 7.0. It can also be used in wet areas. Ladino clover is the most popular type of white clover used in seed mixes. It is a tall growing plant and produces more forage than the shorter growing varieties.

Alsike clover can be grown in wet, heavy soil and is somewhat tolerant to flooding. Its recovery from grazing is excellent. If grazed to a height of 3 inches and then rested for 4 weeks the stand will continue to produce, under proper growing conditions.

Alsike clover can cause photosensitization (a reaction to light) and liver dysfunction. It is thought to be caused by a compound in the plant, which has not been identified at this time. This compound causes cirrhosis of the liver and can be carried through the blood stream to the skin cells. When light reaches the compromised cells inflammation and redness occur. But, liver damage can occur without any signs of photosensitization. More research needs to be done as not all horses are affected and what causes the toxicity is not known. It is highly recommended that alsike clover not be used as horse forage.

Sweet clovers are not true clovers. The leaves are attached to the stem at different points and have serrated edges. They are similar to alfalfa leaves. Yellow and white flowered sweet clovers are available. Sweet clover is not usually used as forage for horses. It is not palatable and only survives one winter (it is a biennial). Sweet clover is generally used as a cover crop. Cover crops are used to introduce nitrogen to the soil and then are plowed under in order to improve the soil. A more productive crop is then planted.

Clovers are very susceptible to a fungus called Rhizoctonia leguminicola. Other legumes may carry it, but clover seems to be affected more often. Also known as black patch disease, the mold grows best in wet humid conditions. The fungus stimulates the horse’s salivary glands and produces excessive drooling or salivation. Other symptoms can be labored breathing, increased urine production, and in some cases abortion. Removing the horses from the pasture or discontinuing the feeding of the affected hay usually results in the horse recovering in several days. Chemical control and prevention of Rhizoctonia leguminicola is very not very effective. Grazing management is the only option…. limit the amount of time the horse spends on the pasture or do not plant clover. Trefoil may be the better choice as the legume used in horse pastures.

Trefoil is a deep-rooted legume that does very well in the northern states. It can tolerate acidic and poorly drained soil better than alfalfa or clover. Trefoil can be identified by its 5 leaflets per leaf and bright yellow blossoms. Trefoil can be used for grazing, but will do best in a rotational program. It makes good hay, but when the soil can produce alfalfa, alfalfa is the better choice as it will yield more forage per acre. When properly

managed trefoil can be a permanent seeding and will produce for many years.

PASTURE

Pasture is the most natural food for the horse. Nature intended for horses to have access to forage 24 hours a day. The horse’s stomach is small, so they prefer to graze continuously. They will spend a total of about 18 hours per day grazing, if given the opportunity.

It takes about 2 acres of well-managed pasture to support one horse. Anything smaller will require limited grazing. Even if the needed acreage is available pasture management is the key to providing good quality forage.

Being able to rotate or rest the pasture is a must. A dry lot or “sacrifice” area should be available for times when the horse needs to be kept off the good pasture. These are times when the ground is soft, chemicals have been applied, new seed has been planted, or the horse has grazed the plants too close.

A large pasture should be divided into smaller lots. This will allow the areas to be rotated and maintained. When the plants have been grazed to a height of 3 inches the horse should be removed and the pasture rested for a least 30 days.

Horses are selective grazers. They will eat what they like first. This will soon allow the undesirable plants to choke out the preferred growth. When the horses are removed to allow the pasture to rest the un-grazed forage or weeds should be clipped and not allowed to re-seed.

Pastures that have been ignored or allowed to grow up in weeds will need to be completely renovated before they can provide a horse with good quality forage. In the fall the weeds should be sprayed with herbicide (for example: 2,4-D amine or ester), a soil test should be taken, and lime applied as indicated by the test. The lime will help bring the pH of the soil up to the needed level of 6.0 to 7.0. The following spring the pasture needs to be plowed, fitted, seeded, and a starter fertilizer applied. The horse needs to be kept off the newly renovated pasture for at least 6 months. Allowing animals to graze before the seeds are established will damage the new seeding.

Established pastures need a maintenance program. Control weeds by clipping them before they go to seed. Herbicides can be used, but they will have grazing restrictions – read all labels and follow all directions.

A soil test should be taken and lime applied, if the test results show an acidic condition. A routine fertilization program needs to be implemented in order to keep the desired plants healthy. Do not allow the plants to be grazed shorter than 3 inches in height. Over-grazing will kill the desired plants and allow weeds to take over the pasture.

Over-seeding an established pasture without tilling the ground is not very effective. A seed bed must be prepared so the new seeds will make soil contact. Once the weeds have been controlled and the pH adjusted, mow the pasture short, use a no-till drill, or scrape the ground with a disk or harrow, then broadcast the seed. Apply a starter fertilizer and keep the horses off it until the new seeding is established – a minimum of 6 weeks. Then follow the suggestions for rotating pastures and limiting the grazing time. Do not over-graze the pasture. Spring or early fall is the best time for over-seeding.

Frost seeding is another method of introducing new seeds to an established pasture. It is done best in March in areas where the ground has frozen during the winter. The theory is the thawing and re-freezing of the soil will allow the seed to make soil contact. If frost seeding is going to be done it is recommended having the existing vegetation clipped short, the pH adjusted, weeds controlled, and fertilizer applied in the fall previous to frost seeding. Legumes work better than grasses when attempting to frost seed. Grass seeds are soft and will probably rot before they have a chance to germinate. Clover varieties work the best, as trefoil is slow to establish and alfalfa does not germinate in low temperatures well.

The type of soil and geographic location will determine the types of plants for the pasture. Available moisture, growing season, and nutrients in the soil all play a factor when choosing the types of forage.

As with any change in diet, horses not used to pasture or experiencing a change in forage type must be slowly introduced to the new feed. Introducing a horse not used to fresh green grass or allowing horses on pastures during periods of rapid forage growth requires management. Laminitis or colic can occur if the grazing is not controlled.

One recommended method of adapting a horse to new or lush pasture is to feed hay prior to allowing the horse pasture access. Then limit the grazing time to avoid digestive problems. Over a period of 2 weeks the amount of time the horse is allowed to graze can be increased gradually. Horses or ponies that are cresty-necked, easy keepers, or have had laminitis in the past should not be allowed to graze on lush, rapidly growing pasture. A grazing muzzle may be used if they cannot be kept off the pasture.

Observation of horses on pasture is critical. Severe weather, flies, loss of edible forage can cause horses to spend less time grazing resulting in weight loss and health problems related to nutritional deficiencies.

Good pasture management also means controlling the manure. Manure should be picked up at least twice per week. If this is not possible mow or harrow the pasture to break up the manure piles. This should be done when the horses have been removed from the pasture – during its rest period. Breaking up the piles exposes the parasite eggs to the elements and aids in killing them.

HAY

Horses prefer to be on pasture. It is the closest thing to what is natural that we can offer them. But, in modern times this is not possible for most horse owners. There are many horses kept in the confinement of a stable or small lot with limited amounts of grazing opportunities. So, we need to bring the forage to them, usually in the form of hay.

Hay is grasses, legumes, or a mixture of the two that has been cut, dried (at least 80 per cent of the moisture removed), and packaged. Cereal grains such as oats and barley may be harvested for hay. This type of forage requires that the stems still be green and the grain in the soft dough stage for optimal nutrition. If it is cut after it is mature the grain will fall off and the fiber left will be straw.

In order for the hay to be of good quality the forage must be of good quality. It must be cut at the right time of maturity, processed correctly, and stored properly.

As forage matures it looses nutrients. The timing of the cutting is critical to the nutrition of the end product. The leaves of grass contain most of the nutrients. As the plant matures the stem grows thicker and the leaves become thinner. The stem is made up of cells. Lignin is a major component of the cell walls and helps support the stem. When mature, the lignin is dead, hollow, and non-digestible. The younger the grass plant is when harvested the more digestible the hay will be. Grass should be harvested before the seed heads become mature.

Legume leaves do not change as they mature and the stems are designed to be strong for support. Legumes have more nutritional value when the leaf to stem ratio is high. The nutrition available to the horse is in the leaves, not the stem. The leaf to stem ratio decreases as the plant matures. Once the legume plant is in full bloom the nutritional value has started to drop. HH

When harvesting hay the goals are to process it when the nutrient value is at its highest and dry it so it will not spoil. Hay needs to be baled when the moisture is less than 20%. If the hay is baled at higher moisture levels it will heat, mold and the protein will decrease. Stored wet hay can get hot enough to cause spontaneous combustion.

Never feed moldy hay to a horse.

There are drying agents, for example, potassium carbonate, which alters the wax surface of the plant and allows moisture to escape. These chemicals are sprayed on as the hay enters the mower or conditioner. They are only effective on legumes and are not harmful to horses. One drying agent that should be avoided is propionic acid. It has an odor that may dissuade horses from eating the hay.

The most common method of judging if the hay is dry enough to bale is by feel. A handful of hay is pulled from under the windrow and it is bent or twisted. The stems should be dry and brittle with no apparent moisture. A more reliable method is the use of a moisture meter. It is an electronic device that measures moisture in hay.

The harvesting procedure is pretty much uniform across the country. The forage is cut, conditioned, dried, and baled. Different pieces of equipment may be used, but the ultimate goal remains the same.

The hay is cut using a mower designed for cutting hay. The hay is then conditioned. During this process the hay passes through rollers, which crush the stems and allow it to dry more quickly. Some mowers will have rollers, so it is done in one pass through the field. Once the top of the hay is dry the hay can be tedded. This procedure fluffs and spreads the hay allowing the bottom hay to dry. When the hay is determined to be dry it is then raked into windrows, which are the proper width for the baler.

Bales of hay are available in several sizes. The most popular is the small square bales, which weigh between 30 and 70 pounds. Most stables prefer this size, as they are easy to handle and store.

Large square and large round bales, which can weigh from 500 to 2,000 pounds are becoming more common. They are less labor intensive to create and can be stored outside. If stored outside up to 1/3 of the hay can be wasted.

Proper storage is critical to the nutritional value of the forage. Moisture causes mold and overheating. Hay should be stacked on wood. Stacking hay on concrete or directly on the dirt floor promotes moisture absorption. The storage area needs to be well ventilated, but not open so rain or snow comes in contact with the forage. Restrict access to birds, rodents, and cats. Their fecal material can contaminate the hay causing disease or make it unpalatable to the horse.

Hay quality can be determined by conducting a hay test. A sample of hay is cored out of the center of the bale using a hay tester. Research has shown that at least 20 bales should be tested at random to secure accurate results. The samples are mixed and sent to a laboratory. About a quart is needed to conduct the test. If more than one lot of hay requires testing, each lot needs to be sampled and sent in separately.

There are several methods of testing forage. Proximate Analysis, Van Soest Detergent Analysis, and Near Infrared Spectroscopy are the most commonly used tests.

Proximate Analysis is the oldest chemical method of analyzing forage. It divides the forage sample into six categories – moisture, ether extract (fat and fat-soluble vitamins), crude protein, ash (mineral content), crude fiber, and nitrogen-free extract (sugar, starch and water-soluble vitamins). It does not determine how digestible the forage is to the horse.

Van Soest Analysis takes the proximate analysis one step further. It extracts neutral and acid detergents for an analysis of fiber quality and digestibility.

Near Infrared Reflective Spectroscopy is able to determine the major chemical components in a forage sample. These components reflect infrared light differently. Calculations are made and the forage quality can be determined. This test will give results for dry matter, crude protein, acid detergent fiber, neutral detergent fiber, total digestible nutrients, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and potassium. The NIRS readings can vary because the computers used to run the mathematical equations are calibrated for the region in which the laboratory is located.

Tests for trace minerals are available. The accuracy of the test results is questionable, however, as the sample can easily become contaminated.

Vitamin analysis is not normally conducted. The tests are very expensive and many laboratories are not set up to do them.

When reading a forage report you will notice two columns: “As Fed or As Is” and “Dry Matter”. Either can be used for ration balancing. But you must be consistent.

I prefer to use dry matter. This shows the nutrient levels after the moisture has been removed. Moisture content varies greatly between feeds. Using dry matter will simplify the process. In addition to that, the horse extracts the moisture during the digestion process. The dry matter levels are used in this course.

Click here to see a hay test result. Please contact me if it does not load. It is a PDF file and may load slow.

Crude protein is a guide to the level of amino acids and nitrogen in the forage.

Crude fat (oil in Europe) levels are low in forage. But, the level must still be included in the ration balancing formula.

Fiber – ADF (Acid Detergent Fiber) reflects the digestible energy available to the horse in the hay. As the ADF reading increases, the digestible energy decreases.

Prime forage is rated at 30% ADF or lower, Premium 31-35%, Good 36-40%, Fair 41-42%, Poor 43-45%, Reject 46% and higher.

Fiber – NDF (Neutral Detergent Fiber) is an indicator to how much dry matter the horse can consume. It shows how digestible the forage is. As the NDF level increases, the amount the horse can utilize decreases.

Prime forage is rated at 40% or lower, Premium 41-46%, Good 47-53%, Fair 54-60%, Poor 61-65%, Reject 66% or higher.

Ash is the mineral matter present in the forage. These are the macro- and microminerals which occur naturally in the plants, plus any soil that may have been mixed in the forage during harvesting. Normal range for grasses is 2% - 8%. Normal range for legumes is 8% - 10%. An excessive reading can indicate a large amount of soil present in the forage.

Mineral estimates indicate the levels of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and potassium present in the forage. Some regions will test for selenium. Most areas are deficient in selenium, so testing for selenium is not usually part of a standard hay test. It is taken for granted it is low.

The critical information regarding minerals is to check the ratio of calcium to phosphorus. Horses require the ratio to be 1.5 – 2.0 parts calcium (Ca) to 1.0 part phosphorus (p).

The hay test example shows calcium at 0.35 percent and phosphorus at 0.21 percent. To determine the ratio divide 0.35 by 0.21 which equals 1.67, so the ratio of calcium to phosphorus is 1.67 to 1. Well within the range needed by horses. (More about the math needed to balance rations in lesson six.)

Never feed a diet that has the phosphorus levels higher than the calcium. The imbalance can cause bone abnormalities, impaired growth rate, contracted tendons, and physitis (inflammation of the growth plates in the joints.)

The magnesium and potassium levels are indicators of the amount available in the forage.

DE, equine mcal/lb. is the estimated digestible energy in the forage minus the energy lost in the feces. When submitting a forage sample be sure to request the digestible energy be calculated for horses. Ruminant (animals with multiple stomach compartments – cows, sheep, goats) utilize energy differently than the horse.

TDN%, equine is the estimated total digestible nutrients in the forage not lost in the feces. It is the sum total of all digestible organic nutrients in the sample. This test must also be conducted for horse application. TDN is not used very often in balancing rations as the ADF, NDF, and RFV are better indicators of forage quality. Ratings lower than 40 are considered poor and higher than 70 prime. The company that did our hay test example did not test for TDN.

Relative feed value combines estimated digestibility and intake (combination of ADF and NDF) into one number for a quick way to evaluate the hay quality at a glance. Prime forage is rated at 151 or higher, Premium 150-125, Good 124-103, Fair 102-87, Poor 86-75, Reject 74 or lower. The RFV of alfalfa in full bloom is rated at 100 and is the standard which the results are based upon.

We'll work more with feed balancing and hay tests in lesson six.

The following chart gives some examples of how the digestibility of forages can vary. These numbers are estimates. Weather, maturity, and storage can affect the results of each individual test.

ESTIMATED NUTRIENT VALUES OF SOME POPULAR FORAGES

FORAGE DRY MATTER DE Mcal/lb. CP % Ca % P % NDF ADF

Alfalfa Hay, early bloom 90 1.10 17.2 1.75 0.26 42 31

Alfalfa Hay, mid bloom 90 1.04 16.0 1.24 0.25 46 35

Alfalfa Hay, late bloom 89 0.98 15.0 1.29 0.24 50 37

Bermudagrass Hay 93 0.89 10.9 0.30 0.19 65 30

Bluegrass, pasture 31 1.11 17.0 0.56 0.40

Red Clover, hay 89 0.98 14.9 1.49 0.25 40 30

Orchardgrass, pasture 19 1.10 18.4 0.57 0.54

Orchardgrass Hay 88 0.94 10.0 0.35 0.31 65 45

Timothy Hay 88 1.06 12.0 0.50 0.25 55 29

Fescue, pasture 27 1.04 11.5 0.60 0.43

Fescue Hay 88 0.91 10.5 0.57 0.37 60 30

FORAGE SUBSTITUTES

Beet pulp, alfalfa pellets, hay cubes, chopped hay, haylage, and silage are examples of forage substitutes. They can be used if the hay or pasture is becoming depleted, as a forage extender, or if a horse is not able to chew long stem fiber.

To ensure good movement and health in the equine digestive tract, the fiber length has to be an inch or longer. Some forage substitutes do not provide the necessary long stem fiber particles, so care must be taken when choosing a product for complete forage replacement.

Beet pulp is a by-product of the sugar beet industry. It does not have high sugar content as the sugar was removed during the processing of the beets. It is high in calcium, very low in phosphorus, and B vitamins. The advantage to feeding beet pulp is it provides a highly fermentable fiber. Beet pulp does not provide enough long stem fiber to maintain normal digestive function. So, it is advised to feed it along with forage. It is safe to feed up to 1% of the horse’s body weight in beet pulp per day. It is not necessary to soak beet pulp unless the horse bolts the feed. Soaking does get more water into the system, which is always a good thing. Just don’t let it ferment.

Alfalfa pellets are made from dehydrated ground alfalfa forage. Like beet pulp, alfalfa pellets do not provide enough long stem fiber and should be fed along with a long stem forage source. Alfalfa pellets, which are high in protein, should be avoided if the horse has been diagnosed with liver or kidney problems.

Hay cubes are a good source of long stem fiber. The forage is dried, chopped, and compressed in to cubes. Alfalfa, alfalfa/grass, or alfalfa/corn is examples of the ingredients that make up hay cubes. Hay cubes always contain at least fifty percent alfalfa. The alfalfa helps hold the cubes together. Like alfalfa pellets, alfalfa cubes will be high in protein and should be avoided if your horse has adrenal gland problems. To avoid the danger of choke and aid the horse with chewing, the hard cubes can be soaked for ten minutes before feeding. If hay cubes are used as the only source of roughage, the recommended feeding rate is 1.5 to 2% of the body weight per day.

Chopped hay or chaff (Europe) is another good source of long-stem fiber. Chopped hay is available in grass and alfalfa formulas. Molasses (called molichaff or mollichop in Europe) is usually added to the formula, as it will keep the leaves and stems from separating in the bag. Chopped hay or chaff is recommended be fed at a minimum of 1.0 to 1.5 % of the horse’s body weight per day when used as a hay extender.

Haylage and silage are chopped high-moisture forages stored in a container that does not allow air to come in contact with the feed. The feed ferments, much like it does in the cecum. If air comes in contact with the fermenting feed it will heat, mold, and grow bacterial toxins. Horses have been known to die from botulism poisoning related to feeding poor silage. Up to one-half of the horses forage can be in the form of good quality haylage or silage. Approximately 1 pound of hay equals 3 pounds of silage on a dry matter basis.

TOXIC WEEDS

When feeding hay or pasture poisonous weeds must be of major concern. Types of toxic weeds vary from region to region. People responsible for the care of horses must be familiar with the weeds in their area that can jeopardize the health of the horse. There are trees which can also be toxic to horses.

The toxins present in plants can work in many different methods. Some may be more toxic at a certain stage of growth or be dependent on weather conditions, such as drought or excessive moisture. Many only become toxic when the leaves have wilted, for example: red maple leaves. The amount the horse consumes may determine the potential for poisoning – some plants, for example: yew, can poison a horse with one mouthful. Other plant toxins may need to build up in the system before posing a health threat.

Avoid plant poisonings by controlling the weeds and limiting access to trees. (Woods make poor pasture, anyway.) Do not allow horses to come in contact with lawn clippings or ornamental plants. Provide the horse with plenty of good quality forage. Horses are less prone to eat poisonous plants if they have access to good quality forage which they prefer. If possible walk the hay field before it is harvested to check for potentially toxic weeds. Feed plenty of hay, so the horse will have the opportunity to reject weeds, which are not palatable and lessen the chances of becoming ill.

Assignment:

Please send your report to elblazer@horsecoursesonline.com

1. Why are forages extremely important to horses?

2. Explain why some care must be taken when feeding alfalfa hay as the horse’s only source of forage. Feel free to do outside research, use your own words, and please cite references.

3. List two problems that may occur when feeding hay pellets or cubes to horses?

4. If you have access to pasture – send a report on how you maintain the quality of the pasture.

5. What type of hay do you feed your horse? Describe how it smells, feels, looks, the variety of grass or legumes it contains and any other distinguishing characteristics.

Click Here to take the Quiz

A book I suggest you add to your equine library is the 2007 National Academies Press Nutrient Requirements of Horses. It has charts that give the average nutrient levels for most popular grains and forages used by horses. The figures used in this course are based on the charts within that book. Most feed manufacturers, equine nutritionists, researchers, supplement companies and others interested in nutrition use the book for reference. It can be purchased from the National Academies Press.